Hydroksyklorokin: Forskjell mellom sideversjoner

Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopedi
Bla gjennom historikken interaktivt
← Forrige endringNeste endring →
Slettet innhold Innhold lagt til
VisuellWikitekst
→‎Forskning: oppdatert med nyeste fra en-wp
Linje 98: Linje 98:
{{see also|Chloroquine#COVID-19|Coronavirus disease 2019#Research|COVID-19 drug repurposing research}}
{{see also|Chloroquine#COVID-19|Coronavirus disease 2019#Research|COVID-19 drug repurposing research}}


As of April 3rd 2020 there is limited evidence to support the use of hydroxychloroquine in [[COVID-19]].<ref name=ASHP2020COVID>{{cite web |title=Assessment of Evidence for COVID-19-Related Treatments: Updated 4/3/2020 |url=https://www.ashp.org/-/media/assets/pharmacy-practice/resource-centers/Coronavirus/docs/ASHP-COVID-19-Evidence-Table.ashx |publisher=ASHP |accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> Hydroxychloroquine is being studied as an experimental treatment for [[coronavirus disease 2019]] (COVID-19).<ref name=Cor2020/> As of March 23 the benefits versus harms of treatment with hydroxychloroquine are unclear.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahase E | title = Covid-19: six million doses of hydroxychloroquine donated to US despite lack of evidence | journal = BMJ | volume = 368 | pages = m1166 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32205321 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m1166 }}</ref> Some are also using it [[off label]] for the disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kalil AC | title = Treating COVID-19-Off-Label Drug Use, Compassionate Use, and Randomized Clinical Trials During Pandemics | journal = JAMA | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32208486 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.4742 }}</ref>
As of 22 April 2020, there is limited evidence to support the use of hydroxychloroquine for [[coronavirus disease 2019]] (COVID-19).<ref name=ASHP2020COVID>{{cite web |title=Assessment of Evidence for COVID-19-Related Treatments: Updated 4/3/2020 |url=https://www.ashp.org/-/media/assets/pharmacy-practice/resource-centers/Coronavirus/docs/ASHP-COVID-19-Evidence-Table.ashx |publisher=ASHP |accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> Studies are ongoing with the benefits versus harms of treatment being unclear.<ref name=Cor2020/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahase E | title = Covid-19: six million doses of hydroxychloroquine donated to US despite lack of evidence | journal = BMJ | volume = 368 | pages = m1166 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32205321 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m1166 | doi-access = free }}</ref> While its use is not approved by the FDA for COVID-19 as of 7 April 2020, there is an [[Emergency Use Authorization]] for such use.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/therapeutic-options.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=9 April 2020 |language=en-us |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> Some are also using it [[off label]] for the disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kalil AC | title = Treating COVID-19-Off-Label Drug Use, Compassionate Use, and Randomized Clinical Trials During Pandemics | journal = JAMA | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32208486 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2020.4742 | doi-access = free }}</ref> On 24 April 2020, citing the risk of "serious heart rhythm problems", the FDA posted a caution against using the drug for COVID-19 "outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=2020-04-24|title=FDA cautions against use of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for COVID-19 outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial due to risk of heart rhythm problems|url=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-cautions-against-use-hydroxychloroquine-or-chloroquine-covid-19-outside-hospital-setting-or|journal=FDA|language=en|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>

As of 8 April 2020, there has been one randomized controlled trial on 36 patients which found that no difference with HCQ, suggesting that if HCQ has an effect it is at most modest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_ABX_Guide/540748/all/Hydroxychloroquine|title=Hydroxychloroquine {{!}} Johns Hopkins ABX Guide|website=www.hopkinsguides.com|language=en|accessdate=24 April 2020}}</ref>

The publication status of one non-randomized trial, which claimed hydroxychloroquine benefits for COVID-19 is ambiguous.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gautret|first=Philippe|last2=Lagier|first2=Jean-Christophe|last3=Parola|first3=Philippe|last4=Hoang|first4=Van Thuan|last5=Meddeb|first5=Line|last6=Mailhe|first6=Morgane|last7=Doudier|first7=Barbara|last8=Courjon|first8=Johan|last9=Giordanengo|first9=Valérie|last10=Vieira|first10=Vera Esteves|last11=Dupont|first11=Hervé Tissot|date=2020-03-20|title=Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32205204|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|pages=105949|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949|issn=1872-7913|pmc=7102549|pmid=32205204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://retractionwatch.com/2020/04/06/hydroxychlorine-covid-19-study-did-not-meet-publishing-societys-expected-standard/|title=Hydroxychloroquine-COVID-19 study did not meet publishing society’s “expected standard”|last=Marcus|first=Author Adam|date=2020-04-06|website=Retraction Watch|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scienceintegritydigest.com/2020/03/24/thoughts-on-the-gautret-et-al-paper-about-hydroxychloroquine-and-azithromycin-treatment-of-covid-19-infections/|title=Thoughts on the Gautret et al. paper about Hydroxychloroquine and Azithromycin treatment of COVID-19 infections|last=eliesbik|first=Author|date=2020-03-24|website=Science Integrity Digest|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://retractionwatch.com/2020/04/12/elsevier-investigating-hydroxychloroquine-covid-19-paper/|title=Elsevier investigating hydroxychloroquine-COVID-19 paper|last=Marcus|first=Author Adam|date=2020-04-12|website=Retraction Watch|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> On the publication page of the ''[[International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents]]'' (IJAA) it is stated that the article was:

<blockquote>Received 16 March 2020, Accepted 17 March 2020, Available online 20 March 2020.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Gautret|first=Philippe|last2=Lagier|first2=Jean-Christophe|last3=Parola|first3=Philippe|last4=Hoang|first4=Van Thuan|last5=Meddeb|first5=Line|last6=Mailhe|first6=Morgane|last7=Doudier|first7=Barbara|last8=Courjon|first8=Johan|last9=Giordanengo|first9=Valérie|last10=Vieira|first10=Vera Esteves|last11=Dupont|first11=Hervé Tissot|date=2020-03-20|title=Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924857920300996|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|language=en|pages=105949|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949|issn=0924-8579}}</ref></blockquote>
Indicating that the paper has been peer reviewed and accepted by the journal IJAA. There is no note of editorial concern on the article page of the journal <ref name=":3" />. However, on 3 April 2020 an official statement from the International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC) was issued.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.isac.world/news-and-publications/official-isac-statement|title=Statement on IJAA paper {{!}} International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|last=Media|first=M. T. C.|website=www.isac.world|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> ISAC in collaboration with the publisher [[Elsevier]] produces the IJAA journal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.isac.world/journals/international-journal-of-antimicrobial-agents|title=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents {{!}} International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|last=Media|first=M. T. C.|website=www.isac.world|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> This statement commences with the text:

<blockquote>ISAC shares the concerns regarding the above article published recently in the International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents (IJAA). The ISAC Board believes the article does not meet the Society’s expected standard, especially relating to the lack of better explanations of the inclusion criteria and the triage of patients to ensure patient safety.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>

Additionally, on 13 April 2020 a joint ISAC and Elsevier statement was issued, that included the following text:<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.isac.world/news-and-publications/isac-elsevier-statement|title=Joint ISAC and Elsevier statement on Gautret et al. paper [PMID 32205204] |last=Media|first=M. T. C.|website=www.isac.world |access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref>

<blockquote>At present, additional independent peer review is ongoing to ascertain whether concerns about the research content of the paper have merit. Given this process of post-publication assessment is on-going, it would be premature to comment at this time. The study authors have been contacted and asked to address the concerns.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>

In April 2020, the US [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) began a trial of the medication.<ref name=mh>{{cite press release | title=NIH clinical trial of hydroxychloroquine, a potential therapy for COVID-19, begins | website=National Institutes of Health (NIH) | date=9 April 2020 | url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-clinical-trial-hydroxychloroquine-potential-therapy-covid-19-begins | access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Outcomes Related to COVID-19 Treated With Hydroxychloroquine Among In-patients With Symptomatic Disease (ORCHID) | website=ClinicalTrials.gov | date=3 April 2020 | url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04332991 | access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

{{uoversatt-slutt}}
{{uoversatt-slutt}}


Sideversjonen fra 3. mai 2020 kl. 16:08

Denne artikkelen er under arbeid. Som leser bør du være forberedt på at den kan være uferdig, og at innholdet kan endre seg fra dag til dag. Som bidragsyter bør du være forberedt på redigeringskollisjoner; det kan være lurt å kopiere teksten din til en annen tekstbehandler før du lagrer. Diskuter gjerne artikkelens struktur og innhold på diskusjonssiden.

Denne siden har ikke blitt redigert på 14 dager, så denne malen («arbeid pågår») kan nå fjernes. Klikk her, fjern malen og lagre. (Klikk alternativt her for å få hele artikkelteksten inn i redigeringsvinduet snarere enn bare første avsnitt.) Redigeringsforklaringen er ferdig utfylt, så du må endre den hvis du gjør noe annet enn å fjerne malen.

Uoversatt: Denne artikkelen er ikke fullstendig oversatt til norsk
«HCQ» omdirigeres hit. For flyplassen, se Halls Creek Airport.

Mal:Short description

Hydroksyklorokin (engelsk språk: Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ)), som blant annet selges kommersielt som Plaquenil[1] er en medisin brukt for å hindre og behandle malaria i områder der malaria fortsatt er sensitiv for klorokin.[2] Annen bruk inkluderer behandling av leddgikt (rheumatoid arthritis), lupus og porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT).[2] Det tas i tablettform via munnen.[2] Det blir også undersøkt som en eksperimentell behandling for COVID-19.[3][4]

Vanlige bieffekter inkluderer spying, hodepine, endring i syn og muskelsvakhet.[2] Alvorlige bieffekter kan være allergiske reaksjoner.[2] Selv om ikke all risiko kan fjernes, forblir middelet en behandling for revmatisme under graviditet.[5] Hydroksyklorokin tilhører antimalaria- og 4-aminoquinoline-medisinfamilien.[2]

Hydroksyklorokin ble godkjent for medisinsk bruk i USA i 1955.[2] Den er på World Health Organizations liste over essensielle medisiner, de sikreste og mest effektive medisinene som man trenger i et helsesystem.[6] In 2017, it was the 128th-most-prescribed medication in the United States, with more than five million prescriptions.[7]

Medisinsk bruk

Hydroksyklorokin er brukt for å behandle systemisk lupus erythematosus, revmatiske lidelser som rheumatoid arthritis, porphyria cutanea tarda og q-feber og noen typer av malaria.[2] Det betraktes som førstelinje-behandling for systemisk lupus erythematosus.[8] Visse typer av malaria, resistente stammer og kompliserte tilfeller som krever forskjellige eller tilleggsmedisinering.[2]

Det er mye brukt til å behandle primært Sjögrens syndrom, men har ikke vist å være effektiv.[9] Hydroksyklorokin er mye brukt i behandlingen av Lyme borreliose-gikt. Den kan ha både en anti-spiroketer aktivitet og en [[ betennelsesdempende]] aktivitet, lik behandling av revmatoid artritt.[10]

Kontraindikasjoner

Medikamentetiketten anbefaler at hydroksyklorokin ikke bør foreskrives til personer med kjent overfølsomhet overfor 4-aminokinolin-forbindelser.[11] Det er en rekke andre kontraindikasjoner[12][13] og forsiktighet er nødvendig hvis pasienter har visse hjertesykdommer, diabetes eller psoriasis.

Side effects

The most common adverse effects are a mild nausea and occasional stomach cramps with mild diarrhea. The most serious adverse effects affect the eye, with dose-related retinopathy as a concern even after hydroxychloroquine use is discontinued.[2] For short-term treatment of acute malaria, adverse effects can include abdominal cramps, diarrhea, heart problems, reduced appetite, headache, nausea and vomiting.[2]

For prolonged treatment of lupus or rheumatoid arthritis, adverse effects include the acute symptoms, plus altered eye pigmentation, acne, anemia, bleaching of hair, blisters in mouth and eyes, blood disorders, convulsions, vision difficulties, diminished reflexes, emotional changes, excessive coloring of the skin, hearing loss, hives, itching, liver problems or liver failure, loss of hair, muscle paralysis, weakness or atrophy, nightmares, psoriasis, reading difficulties, tinnitus, skin inflammation and scaling, skin rash, vertigo, weight loss, and occasionally urinary incontinence.[2] Hydroxychloroquine can worsen existing cases of both psoriasis and porphyria.[2]

Children may be especially vulnerable to developing adverse effects from hydroxychloroquine.[2]

Eyes

Utdypende artikkel: Chloroquine retinopathy

One of the most serious side effects is retinopathy (generally with chronic use).[2][14] People taking 400 mg of hydroxychloroquine or less per day generally have a negligible risk of macular toxicity, whereas the risk begins to go up when a person takes the medication over five years or has a cumulative dose of more than 1000 grams. The daily safe maximum dose for eye toxicity can be computed a person's height and weight.[15] Macular toxicity is related to the total cumulative dose rather than the daily dose. Regular eye screening, even in the absence of visual symptoms, is recommended to begin when either of these risk factors occurs.[16]

Toxicity from hydroxychloroquine may be seen in two distinct areas of the eye: the cornea and the macula. The cornea may become affected (relatively commonly) by an innocuous cornea verticillata or vortex keratopathy and is characterized by whorl-like corneal epithelial deposits. These changes bear no relationship to dosage and are usually reversible on cessation of hydroxychloroquine.

The macular changes are potentially serious. Advanced retinopathy is characterized by reduction of visual acuity and a "bull's eye" macular lesion which is absent in early involvement.

Overdose

Serious symptoms of overdose generally occur within an hour of ingestion.[17] These symptoms may include sleepiness, vision changes, seizures, stopping of breathing, and heart problems such as ventricular fibrillation and low blood pressure.[17][18] Loss of vision may be permanent.[19] Low blood potassium, to levels of 1 to 2 mmol/L, may also occur.[17][20]

Chloroquine has a risk of death in overdose in adults of about 20%, while hydroxychloroquine is estimated to be two or three fold less toxic.[17] While overdoses of hydroxychloroquine have historically been uncommon, one report documented three deaths out of eight cases.[21]

Treatment recommendations include early mechanical ventilation, cardiac monitoring, and activated charcoal.[17] Intravenous fluids and vasopressors may be required with epinephrine being the vasopressor of choice.[17] Gastric lavage may also be used.[21] Seizures may be treated with benzodiazepines.[17] Intravenous potassium chloride may be required, however this may result in high blood potassium later in the course of the disease.[17] Dialysis has not been found to be useful.[17]

Interactions

The drug transfers into breast milk and should be used with care by pregnant or nursing mothers.[trenger referanse]

Care should be taken if combined with medication altering liver function as well as aurothioglucose (Solganal), cimetidine (Tagamet) or digoxin (Lanoxin). HCQ can increase plasma concentrations of penicillamine which may contribute to the development of severe side effects. It enhances hypoglycemic effects of insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents. Dose altering is recommended to prevent profound hypoglycemia. Antacids may decrease the absorption of HCQ. Both neostigmine and pyridostigmine antagonize the action of hydroxychloroquine.[22]

While there may be a link between hydroxychloroquine and hemolytic anemia in those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, this risk may be low in those of African descent.[23]

Specifically, the FDA drug label for hydroxychloroquine lists the following drug interactions:[11]

  • Digoxin (wherein it may result in increased serum digoxin levels)
  • Insulin or antidiabetic drugs (wherein it may enhance the effects of a hypoglycemic treatment)
  • Drugs that prolong QT interval and other arrhythmogenic drugs (as Hydroxychloroquine prolongs the QT interval and may increase the risk of inducing ventricular arrhythmias if used concurrently)
  • Mefloquine and other drugs known to lower the convulsive threshold (co-administration with other antimalarials known to lower the convulsion threshold may increase risk of convulsions)
  • Antiepileptics (concurrent use may impair the antiepileptic activity)
  • Methotrexate (combined use is unstudied and may increase the frequency of side effects)
  • Cyclosporin (wherein an increased plasma cyclosporin level was reported when used together).

Pharmacology

Pharmacokinetics

Hydroxychloroquine has similar pharmacokinetics to chloroquine, with rapid gastrointestinal absorption and elimination by the kidneys. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP2D6, 2C8, 3A4 and 3A5) metabolize hydroxychloroquine to N-desethylhydroxychloroquine.[24]

Pharmacodynamics

Antimalarials are lipophilic weak bases and easily pass plasma membranes. The free base form accumulates in lysosomes (acidic cytoplasmic vesicles) and is then protonated,[25] resulting in concentrations within lysosomes up to 1000 times higher than in culture media. This increases the pH of the lysosome from four to six.[26] Alteration in pH causes inhibition of lysosomal acidic proteases causing a diminished proteolysis effect.[27] Higher pH within lysosomes causes decreased intracellular processing, glycosylation and secretion of proteins with many immunologic and nonimmunologic consequences.[28] These effects are believed to be the cause of a decreased immune cell functioning such as chemotaxis, phagocytosis and superoxide production by neutrophils.[29] HCQ is a weak diprotic base that can pass through the lipid cell membrane and preferentially concentrate in acidic cytoplasmic vesicles. The higher pH of these vesicles in macrophages or other antigen-presenting cells limits the association of autoantigenic (any) peptides with class II MHC molecules in the compartment for peptide loading and/or the subsequent processing and transport of the peptide-MHC complex to the cell membrane.[30]

Mechanism of action

Hydroxychloroquine increases[31] lysosomal pH in antigen-presenting cells. In inflammatory conditions, it blocks toll-like receptors on plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs).[trenger referanse] Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR 9), which recognizes DNA-containing immune complexes, leads to the production of interferon and causes the dendritic cells to mature and present antigen to T cells. Hydroxychloroquine, by decreasing TLR signaling, reduces the activation of dendritic cells and the inflammatory process.Mal:Mcn

In 2003, a novel mechanism was described wherein hydroxychloroquine inhibits stimulation of the toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 family receptors. TLRs are cellular receptors for microbial products that induce inflammatory responses through activation of the innate immune system.[32]

As with other quinoline antimalarial drugs, the antimalarial mechanism of action of quinine has not been fully resolved. The most accepted model is based on hydrochloroquinine and involves the inhibition of hemozoin biocrystallization, which facilitates the aggregation of cytotoxic heme. Free cytotoxic heme accumulates in the parasites, causing their deaths.[trenger referanse]

Society and culture

Cost

The wholesale cost in the developing world was about US$4,65 per month per 2015, when used for rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.[33] In the United States the wholesale cost of a month of treatment is about US$25 per 2020.[34] In the United Kingdom this dose costs the National Health Service about £5.15.[35]

Brand names

It is frequently sold as a sulfate salt known as hydroxychloroquine sulfate.[2] 200 mg of the sulfate salt is equal to 155 mg of the base.[2]

Brand names of hydroxychloroquine include Plaquenil, Hydroquin, Axemal (in India), Dolquine, Quensyl, Quinoric.[36]

Regulatory approval

On 17 March 2020, the AIFA Scientific Technical Commission of the Italian Medicines Agency expressed a favorable opinion on including the off-label use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19.[37]

In the US, several state pharmacy boards reported that some doctors and dentists were writing prescriptions for hydroxychloroquine and a related drug, chloroquine, to themselves, family members, and staff.[38][39] Sudden demand spikes caused by hospital use for severely ill COVID-19 patients and prescriptions for prophylaxis have resulted in shortages; doctors have expressed concern that patients who have long taken hydroxychloroquine for other approved indications, like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, will be unable to procure needed medicine.[39][40]

On 28 March 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an emergency use authorization (EUA) to allow hydroxychloroquine sulfate and chloroquine phosphate products donated to the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) to be distributed and used for certain people who are hospitalized with COVID-19.[41][42]

Forskning

COVID-19

Se også: Chloroquine#COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019#Research og COVID-19 drug repurposing research

As of 22 April 2020, there is limited evidence to support the use of hydroxychloroquine for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).[43] Studies are ongoing with the benefits versus harms of treatment being unclear.[3][44] While its use is not approved by the FDA for COVID-19 as of 7 April 2020, there is an Emergency Use Authorization for such use.[45] Some are also using it off label for the disease.[46] On 24 April 2020, citing the risk of "serious heart rhythm problems", the FDA posted a caution against using the drug for COVID-19 "outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial".[47]

As of 8 April 2020, there has been one randomized controlled trial on 36 patients which found that no difference with HCQ, suggesting that if HCQ has an effect it is at most modest.[48]

The publication status of one non-randomized trial, which claimed hydroxychloroquine benefits for COVID-19 is ambiguous.[49][50][51][52] On the publication page of the International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents (IJAA) it is stated that the article was:

Received 16 March 2020, Accepted 17 March 2020, Available online 20 March 2020.[53]

Indicating that the paper has been peer reviewed and accepted by the journal IJAA. There is no note of editorial concern on the article page of the journal [53]. However, on 3 April 2020 an official statement from the International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC) was issued.[54] ISAC in collaboration with the publisher Elsevier produces the IJAA journal.[55] This statement commences with the text:

ISAC shares the concerns regarding the above article published recently in the International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents (IJAA). The ISAC Board believes the article does not meet the Society’s expected standard, especially relating to the lack of better explanations of the inclusion criteria and the triage of patients to ensure patient safety.[54]

Additionally, on 13 April 2020 a joint ISAC and Elsevier statement was issued, that included the following text:[56]

At present, additional independent peer review is ongoing to ascertain whether concerns about the research content of the paper have merit. Given this process of post-publication assessment is on-going, it would be premature to comment at this time. The study authors have been contacted and asked to address the concerns.[56]

In April 2020, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) began a trial of the medication.[57][58]

(markert tekst trenger oversettelse)

Referanser

  1. ^ «Plaquenil «sanofi-aventis» - Felleskatalogen». www.felleskatalogen.no. Felleskatalogen. 8. april 2020. Arkivert fra originalen 8. april 2020. Besøkt 8. april 2020. «Legemiddel underlagt rasjonering i forbindelse med COVID-19 … Varsel fra Legemiddelverket: Rasjonering av Plaquenil Type: Generelt Publisert første gang: 30.03.2020 Plaquenil er underlagt rasjonering fra apotek til pasient. Plaquenil og tilvarende kan kun leveres ut på blå resept. … 200 mg: Hver tablett inneh.: Hydroksyklorokinsulfat 200 mg tilsv. hydroksyklorokin 155 mg,» 
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q «Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate Monograph for Professionals». The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 20. mars 2020. Arkivert fra originalen 20. mars 2020. Besøkt 20. mars 2020. 
  3. ^ a b «A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19». Journal of Critical Care. mars 2020. PMID 32173110. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005. 
  4. ^ Grady, Denise (April 1, 2020). «Malaria Drug Helps Virus Patients Improve, in Small Study». The New York Times. Arkivert fra originalen April 1, 2020. Besøkt April 1, 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |arkivdato=, |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp)
  5. ^ «BSR and BHPR guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and breastfeeding-Part I: standard and biologic disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and corticosteroids». Rheumatology. 55 (9): 1693–7. september 2016. PMID 26750124. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kev404. 
  6. ^ World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 
  7. ^ «The Top 300 of 2020». ClinCalc. Besøkt 18. mars 2020. 
  8. ^ «Hydroxychloroquine in dermatology: New perspectives on an old drug». The Australasian Journal of Dermatology. October 2019. PMID 31612996. doi:10.1111/ajd.13168.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  9. ^ «Is hydroxychloroquine effective in treating primary Sjogren's syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis». BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 18 (1): 186. May 2017. PMC 5427554 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 28499370. doi:10.1186/s12891-017-1543-z.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  10. ^ «Therapy for Lyme arthritis: strategies for the treatment of antibiotic-refractory arthritis». Arthritis and Rheumatism. 54 (10): 3079–86. October 2006. PMID 17009226. doi:10.1002/art.22131.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  11. ^ a b «Plaquenil- hydroxychloroquine sulfate tablet». DailyMed. 3 January 2020. Besøkt 20 March 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp)
  12. ^ «Plaquenil (hydroxychloroquine sulfate) dose, indications, adverse effects, interactions». pdr.net. Besøkt 19. mars 2020. 
  13. ^ «Drugs & Medications». webmd.com. Besøkt 19. mars 2020. 
  14. ^ «Improving the risk-benefit relationship and informed consent for patients treated with hydroxychloroquine». Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society. 105: 191–4; discussion 195–7. 2007. PMC 2258132 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 18427609. 
  15. ^ «EyeDock». EyeDock (engelsk). Besøkt 7 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  16. ^ «Revised recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy». Ophthalmology. 118 (2): 415–22. February 2011. PMID 21292109. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.11.017.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ling Ngan Wong, A; Tsz Fung Cheung, I; Graham, CA (February 2008). «Hydroxychloroquine overdose: case report and recommendations for management.». European journal of emergency medicine : official journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine. 15 (1): 16-8. PMID 18180661. doi:10.1097/MEJ.0b013e3280adcb56.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  18. ^ Smith, ER; Klein-Schwartz, W (May 2005). «Are 1-2 dangerous? Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine exposure in toddlers.». The Journal of emergency medicine. 28 (4): 437-43. PMID 15837026. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2004.12.011.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  19. ^ «Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Toxicity: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology». 23 March 2020. Besøkt 7 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp)
  20. ^ Modern Medical Toxicology (engelsk). Jaypee Brothers Publishers. 2012. s. 458. ISBN 978-93-5025-965-8. 
  21. ^ a b Aronson, Jeffrey K. (2015). Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs: The International Encyclopedia of Adverse Drug Reactions and Interactions (engelsk). Elsevier. s. 261. ISBN 978-0-444-53716-4. 
  22. ^ «Russian Register of Medicines: Plaquenil (hydroxychloroquine) Film-coated Tablets for Oral Use. Prescribing Information» (Russian). Sanofi-Synthelabo. Arkivert fra originalen 16 August 2016. Besøkt 14 July 2016.  Sjekk datoverdier i |arkivdato=, |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  23. ^ «Examination of Hydroxychloroquine Use and Hemolytic Anemia in G6PDH-Deficient Patients». Arthritis Care & Research. 70 (3): 481–485. March 2018. PMID 28556555. doi:10.1002/acr.23296.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  24. ^ «New concepts in antimalarial use and mode of action in dermatology». Dermatologic Therapy. 20 (4): 160–74. 2007. PMID 17970883. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2007.00131.x. 
  25. ^ «Lysosomal sequestration of amine-containing drugs: analysis and therapeutic implications». Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 96 (4): 729–46. April 2007. PMID 17117426. doi:10.1002/jps.20792. 
  26. ^ «Fluorescence probe measurement of the intralysosomal pH in living cells and the perturbation of pH by various agents». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 75 (7): 3327–31. July 1978. Bibcode:1978PNAS...75.3327O. PMC 392768 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 28524. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.7.3327.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  27. ^ «The effects of basic substances and acidic ionophores on the digestion of exogenous and endogenous proteins in mouse peritoneal macrophages». The Journal of Cell Biology. 102 (3): 959–66. March 1986. PMC 2114118 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 3949884. doi:10.1083/jcb.102.3.959.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  28. ^ «Effects of weakly basic amines on proteolytic processing and terminal glycosylation of secretory proteins in cultured rat hepatocytes». The Biochemical Journal. 240 (3): 739–45. December 1986. PMC 1147481 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 3493770. doi:10.1042/bj2400739.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  29. ^ «Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine inhibit multiple sites in metabolic pathways leading to neutrophil superoxide release». The Journal of Rheumatology. 15 (1): 23–7. January 1988. PMID 2832600.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  30. ^ «Anti-malarial drugs: possible mechanisms of action in autoimmune disease and prospects for drug development». Lupus. 5 Suppl 1: S4-10. June 1996. PMID 8803903. doi:10.1177/096120339600500103.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  31. ^ Waller, Derek; Sampson, Tony. Medical Pharmacology and Therapeutics (2nd utg.). s. 370. 
  32. ^ «Toll-like receptors». Annual Review of Immunology. 21: 335–76. 2003. PMID 12524386. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141126. 
  33. ^ «Single Drug Information» (PDF). International Medical Products Price Guide. Besøkt 31 December 2019.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  34. ^ «NADAC as of 2019-08-07». Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Besøkt 19 March 2020. «Typical dose is 600mg per day. Costs 0.28157 per dose. Month has about 30 days.»  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  35. ^ British national formulary: BNF 69 (69 utg.). British Medical Association. 2015. s. 730. ISBN 9780857111562. 
  36. ^ «Hydroxychloroquine trade names». Drugs-About.com. Besøkt 18 June 2019.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  37. ^ «Azioni intraprese per favorire la ricerca e l'accesso ai nuovi farmaci per il trattamento del COVID-19». Italian Medicines Agency (AIFA) (italiensk). 17 March 2020. Besøkt 18. mars 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  38. ^ Gabler, Ellen (24. mars 2020). «States Say Some Doctors Stockpile Trial Coronavirus Drugs, for Themselves». The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. 
  39. ^ a b Rowland, Christopher. «As Trump touts an unproven coronavirus treatment, supplies evaporate for patients who need those drugs». Washington Post. 
  40. ^ Torres, Stacy. «Stop hoarding hydroxychloroquine. Many Americans, including me, need it.». The Washington Post. Besøkt 31. mars 2020. 
  41. ^ «Request for Emergency Use Authorization For Use of Chloroquine Phosphate or Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate Supplied From the Strategic National Stockpile for Treatment of 2019 Coronavirus Disease». US Food and Drug Administration. 28 March 2020. Besøkt 30 March 2020. «Having concluded that the criteria for issuance of this authorization under 564(c) of the Act are met, I am authorizing the emergency use of chloroquine phosphate and hydroxychloroquine sulfate, as described in the Scope of Authorization section of this letter (Section II) for treatment of COVID-19 when clinical trials are not available, or participation is not feasible, subject to the terms of this authorization.»  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp) Mal:PD-notice
  42. ^ «Emergency Use Authorization». FDA. 29 March 2020. Besøkt 30 March 2020. «On March 28, 2020, FDA issued an EUA to allow hydroxychloroquine sulfate and chloroquine phosphate products donated to the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) to be distributed and used for certain hospitalized patients with COVID-19. These drugs will be distributed from the SNS to states for doctors to prescribe to adolescent and adult patients hospitalized with COVID-19, as appropriate, when a clinical trial is not available or feasible.»  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp) Mal:PD-notice
  43. ^ «Assessment of Evidence for COVID-19-Related Treatments: Updated 4/3/2020». ASHP. Besøkt 7 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  44. ^ «Covid-19: six million doses of hydroxychloroquine donated to US despite lack of evidence». BMJ. 368: m1166. March 2020. PMID 32205321. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1166.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  45. ^ «Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)». Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (engelsk). 11 February 2020. Besøkt 9 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp)
  46. ^ «Treating COVID-19-Off-Label Drug Use, Compassionate Use, and Randomized Clinical Trials During Pandemics». JAMA. March 2020. PMID 32208486. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.4742.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  47. ^ «FDA cautions against use of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for COVID-19 outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial due to risk of heart rhythm problems». FDA. 24. april 2020. 
  48. ^ «Hydroxychloroquine | Johns Hopkins ABX Guide». www.hopkinsguides.com (engelsk). Besøkt 24 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato= (hjelp)
  49. ^ Gautret, Philippe; Lagier, Jean-Christophe; Parola, Philippe; Hoang, Van Thuan; Meddeb, Line; Mailhe, Morgane; Doudier, Barbara; Courjon, Johan; Giordanengo, Valérie; Vieira, Vera Esteves; Dupont, Hervé Tissot (20. mars 2020). «Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial». International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents: 105949. PMC 7102549 Åpent tilgjengelig. PMID 32205204. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949. 
  50. ^ Marcus, Author Adam (6. april 2020). «Hydroxychloroquine-COVID-19 study did not meet publishing society’s “expected standard”». Retraction Watch (engelsk). Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  51. ^ eliesbik, Author (24. mars 2020). «Thoughts on the Gautret et al. paper about Hydroxychloroquine and Azithromycin treatment of COVID-19 infections». Science Integrity Digest (engelsk). Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  52. ^ Marcus, Author Adam (12. april 2020). «Elsevier investigating hydroxychloroquine-COVID-19 paper». Retraction Watch (engelsk). Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  53. ^ a b Gautret, Philippe; Lagier, Jean-Christophe; Parola, Philippe; Hoang, Van Thuan; Meddeb, Line; Mailhe, Morgane; Doudier, Barbara; Courjon, Johan; Giordanengo, Valérie; Vieira, Vera Esteves; Dupont, Hervé Tissot (20. mars 2020). «Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial». International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents: 105949. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949. 
  54. ^ a b Media, M. T. C. «Statement on IJAA paper | International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy». www.isac.world (engelsk). Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  55. ^ Media, M. T. C. «International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy». www.isac.world (engelsk). Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  56. ^ a b Media, M. T. C. «Joint ISAC and Elsevier statement on Gautret et al. paper [PMID 32205204]». www.isac.world. Besøkt 13. april 2020. 
  57. ^ «NIH clinical trial of hydroxychloroquine, a potential therapy for COVID-19, begins» (pressemelding). 9 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |dato= (hjelp)
  58. ^ «Outcomes Related to COVID-19 Treated With Hydroxychloroquine Among In-patients With Symptomatic Disease (ORCHID)». ClinicalTrials.gov. 3 April 2020. Besøkt 11 April 2020.  Sjekk datoverdier i |besøksdato=, |dato= (hjelp)

Eksterne lenker

Mal:Chromalveolate antiparasitics Mal:Antirheumatic products Mal:Portal bar

Hentet fra «https://no.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydroksyklorokin&oldid=20419243»